我正在学习一个在 pyOpenGL 上相当陈旧的教程系列，我正在做的和他做的完全一样。但是我遇到了延迟 - 我有 AMD FX-6300 和 8gb ram，GTX-1050ti，文件存储在闪存驱动器上。我读过一些使用 glBegin 和 glEnd 会导致问题的地方？我应该使用什么来代替以及如何在此代码中使用它:

import pygame
from pygame.locals import *
from OpenGL.GL import *
from OpenGL.GLU import *
import random

"""
- A Cube has 8 Nodes/Verticies
- 12 Lines/connections
- 6 Sides
"""


vertices = (
    (1, -1, -1),
    (1, 1, -1),
    (-1, 1, -1),
    (-1, -1, -1),
    (1, -1, 1),
    (1, 1, 1),
    (-1, -1, 1),
    (-1, 1, 1)
)

edges = ( #Contains vertexes/nodes
    (0, 1),
    (0, 3),
    (0, 4),
    (2, 1),
    (2, 3),
    (2, 7),
    (6, 3),
    (6, 4),
    (6, 7),
    (5, 1),
    (5, 4),
    (5, 7)
)

surfaces = (
    (0,1,2,3),
    (3,2,7,6),
    (6,7,5,4),
    (4,5,1,0),
    (1,5,7,2),
    (4,0,3,6),
)

colors = (
    (1,0,0),
    (0,1,0),
    (0,0,1),
    (0,0,0,),
    (1,1,1),
    (0,1,1),
    (1,0,0),
    (0,1,0),
    (0,0,1),
    (0,0,0,),
    (1,1,1),
    (0,1,1),    
)

def set_vertices(max_distance):
    #Create change between each cube
    x_value_change = random.randrange(-10, 10)
    y_value_change = random.randrange(-10, 10)
    z_value_change = random.randrange(-1 * max_distance, -20)

    new_vertices = []

    for vert in vertices: 
        new_vert = []

        new_x = vert[0] + x_value_change
        new_y = vert[1] + y_value_change
        new_z = vert[2] + z_value_change

        new_vert.append(new_x)
        new_vert.append(new_y)
        new_vert.append(new_z)

        new_vertices.append(new_vert) #Appends (1, 1, 1)
    return new_vertices

def Cube(veritces):
    glBegin(GL_QUADS)
    for surface in surfaces:
        x = 0
        for vertex in surface:
            x += 1
            glColor3fv((colors[x]))
            glVertex3fv(vertices[vertex])
    glEnd()

    glBegin(GL_LINES)
    for edge in edges:
        for vertex in edge:
            glVertex3fv(vertices[vertex]) #Draws vertex's in position given according to vertices array
    glEnd()


def main():
    pygame.init()
    display = (1000, 800)
    pygame.display.set_mode(display, DOUBLEBUF|OPENGL)

    gluPerspective(45, (display[0]/display[1]), 0.1, 50.0) #FOV, aspect ratio. clipping plane min, max

    glTranslatef(random.randrange(-5, 5), random.randrange(-5, 5), -40) #X,Y,Z -5 to zoom out on z axis
    #glRotatef(25, 1, 20, 0) #Degrees, x,y,z

    object_passed = False


    max_distance = 300
    cube_dict = {}

    for x in range(75): #Draws 75 cubes
        cube_dict[x] = set_vertices(max_distance) #Returns a new cube set of vertices

    while True:
        for event in pygame.event.get():
            if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
                pygame.quit()
                quit()
            if event.type == pygame.KEYDOWN:
                if event.key == pygame.K_LEFT:
                    x_move = 0.3
                if event.key == pygame.K_RIGHT:
                    x_move = -0.3
                if event.key == pygame.K_UP:
                    y_move = -0.3
                if event.key == pygame.K_DOWN:
                    y_move = 0.3
            if event.type == pygame.KEYUP:
                if event.key == pygame.K_LEFT or event.key == pygame.K_RIGHT:
                    x_move = 0
                if event.key == pygame.K_UP or event.key == pygame.K_DOWN:
                    y_move = 0     
                    """
            if event.type == pygame.MOUSEBUTTONDOWN:
                if event.button == 4:
                    glTranslatef(0, 0, 1)
                if event.button == 5:
                    glTranslatef(0, 0, -1)
                    """

        #glRotatef(1, 1, 1, 1)

        x = glGetDoublev(GL_MODELVIEW_MATRIX)

        camera_x = x[3][0] #Access camera cordinates
        camera_y = x[3][1]
        camera_z = x[3][2]



        glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT|GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT) #Clears the screen

        glTranslatef(x_move, y_move, 0.5)

        for each_cube in cube_dict:
            Cube(cube_dict[each_cube])

        pygame.display.flip() #Cant use update
        pygame.time.wait(10)



main()

pygame.quit()
quit()

教程是here

谢谢!!

最佳答案

I have read some places that using glBegin and glEnd cause issues? What should I use instead ...

由 glBegin 和 glEnd 绘制在现代 OpenGL 中已弃用 (参见 Fixed Function Pipeline 和 Legacy OpenGL ). 在现代 OpenGL 中 Vertices are Specified经过 Vertex Buffer Objects和 Vertex Array Object 一切都是使用 Shader program 绘制的.

作为这个方向的第一步，我建议使用 Vertex Buffer Objects和客户端能力

参见 OpenGL 4.6 API Compatibility Profile Specification; 10.3.3 Specifying Arrays for Fixed-Function Attributes; page 402

The commands

void VertexPointer( int size, enum type, sizei stride, const void *pointer );
void NormalPointer( enum type, sizei stride, const void *pointer );
void ColorPointer( int size, enum type, sizei stride, const void *pointer );
void SecondaryColorPointer( int size, enum type, sizei stride, const void *pointer );
void IndexPointer( enum type, sizei stride, const void *pointer );
void EdgeFlagPointer( sizei stride, const void *pointer );
void FogCoordPointer( enum type, sizei stride, const void *pointer );
void TexCoordPointer( int size, enum type, sizei stride, const void *pointer );

specify the location and organization of arrays to store vertex coordinates, normals, colors, secondary colors, color indices, edge flags, fog coordinates.

[...]

An individual array is enabled or disabled by calling one of

void EnableClientState( enum array );
void DisableClientState( enum array );

with array set to VERTEX_ARRAY, NORMAL_ARRAY, COLOR_ARRAY, SECONDARY_COLOR_ARRAY, INDEX_ARRAY, EDGE_FLAG_ARRAY, FOG_COORD_ARRAY, or TEXTURE_COORD_ARRAY, for the vertex, normal, color, secondary color, color index, edge flag, fog coordinate, or texture coordinate array, respectively.

为此，您必须做好准备，并且必须包含 NumPy :

import numpy

为顶点缓冲区对象创建全局变量并为面创建属性集(颜色和顶点坐标对)并为面创建顶点缓冲区对象(顶点坐标和颜色)。 最后为边的顶点坐标创建顶点缓冲对象:

def main():

    global face_vbos, edge_vbo

    .....

    # define the vertex buffers vor the faces

    vertex_array = []
    color_array = []
    for face in range(len(surfaces)):
        for vertex in surfaces[face]:
            vertex_array .append( vertices[vertex] )
            color_array.append( colors[face] )
    
    face_vbos = glGenBuffers(2)
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, face_vbos[0])
    glBufferData( GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, numpy.array( vertex_array, dtype=numpy.float32 ), GL_STATIC_DRAW )
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, face_vbos[1])
    glBufferData( GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, numpy.array( color_array, dtype=numpy.float32 ), GL_STATIC_DRAW )
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0)

    # define the vertex buffer for the edges
    edge_vbo = glGenBuffers(1)
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, edge_vbo)
    glBufferData( GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, numpy.array( vertices, dtype=numpy.float32 ), GL_STATIC_DRAW )
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0)

    while True:

        # [...]

当您绘制面和边时，您已经定义了一个顶点数据数组 ( glVertexPointer ) 并定义一组颜色 ( glColorPointer ) 启用客户端功能 ( glEnableClientState )。
这些面孔可以通过 glDrawArrays 绘制，因为颜色的所有坐标都存储在 一个连续的数组(vertex_array 和 color_array -> face_vbos )。
边缘必须由 glDrawElements 绘制, 使用索引 edges, 因为顶点 (vertices -> edge_vbo) 必须被索引以形成线:

def Cube(veritces):
    
    global face_vbos, edge_vbo 

    # draw faces
    
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, face_vbos[0])
    glVertexPointer( 3, GL_FLOAT, 0, None )
    glEnableClientState( GL_VERTEX_ARRAY )  
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, face_vbos[1]) 
    glColorPointer( 3, GL_FLOAT, 0, None ) 
    glEnableClientState( GL_COLOR_ARRAY ) 
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0) 

    glDrawArrays(GL_QUADS, 0, 6*4)

    glDisableClientState( GL_VERTEX_ARRAY )   
    glDisableClientState( GL_COLOR_ARRAY ) 
    
    #draw edges

    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, edge_vbo)
    glVertexPointer( 3, GL_FLOAT, 0, None ) 
    glEnableClientState( GL_VERTEX_ARRAY ) 
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0) 

    glColor3f( 1, 1, 0 )
    glDrawElements(GL_LINES, 2*12, GL_UNSIGNED_INT, numpy.array( edges, dtype=numpy.uint32 ))

    glDisableClientState( GL_VERTEX_ARRAY )  

这可以通过使用 Vertex Array Objects 进一步改进 和一个 Index buffer对于边缘:

def main():

    global face_vao, edge_vao

    # [...]

    # define the vertex buffers vor the faces

    attribute_array = []
    for face in range(len(surfaces)):
        for vertex in surfaces[face ]:
            attribute_array.append( vertices[vertex] )
            attribute_array.append( colors[face] )
    
    face_vbos = glGenBuffers(1)
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, face_vbos)
    glBufferData( GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, numpy.array( attribute_array, dtype=numpy.float32 ), GL_STATIC_DRAW )
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0)

    # define the vertex array object for the faces

    face_vao = glGenVertexArrays( 1 )
    glBindVertexArray( face_vao )

    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, face_vbos)
    glVertexPointer( 3, GL_FLOAT, 6*4, None )
    glEnableClientState( GL_VERTEX_ARRAY )  
    glColorPointer( 3, GL_FLOAT, 6*4, ctypes.cast(3*4, ctypes.c_void_p) )
    glEnableClientState( GL_COLOR_ARRAY ) 
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0) 
    
    glBindVertexArray( 0 )

    # define the vertex buffer for the edges

    edge_vbo = glGenBuffers(1)
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, edge_vbo)
    glBufferData( GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, numpy.array( vertices, dtype=numpy.float32 ), GL_STATIC_DRAW )
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0)

    # define the vertex array object for the edges

    edge_vao = glGenVertexArrays( 1 )
    glBindVertexArray( edge_vao )

    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, edge_vbo)
    glVertexPointer( 3, GL_FLOAT, 0, None ) 
    glEnableClientState( GL_VERTEX_ARRAY ) 
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0) 

    edge_ibo = glGenBuffers(1)
    glBindBuffer( GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, edge_ibo )
    glBufferData( GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, numpy.array( edges, dtype=numpy.uint32 ), GL_STATIC_DRAW )

    glBindVertexArray( 0 )
    glBindBuffer( GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0 )

    while True:

        # [...]

def Cube(veritces):
    
    global face_vao, edge_vao

    # draw faces
    
    glBindVertexArray( face_vao )
    glDrawArrays( GL_QUADS, 0, 6*4 )
    glBindVertexArray( 0 )
    
    #draw edges

    glColor3f( 1, 1, 0 )
    glBindVertexArray( edge_vao )
    glDrawElements( GL_LINES, 2*12, GL_UNSIGNED_INT, None )
    glBindVertexArray( 0 )

您可以通过 Face Culling 获得进一步的性能改进 并启用 Depth Test . 深度测试应该 less 或 eauel，这样边缘就不会被面覆盖:

# enable depth test (less or equal)
glEnable( GL_DEPTH_TEST )
glDepthFunc( GL_LEQUAL )

# enable back face culling (front faces are drawn clockwise)
glEnable( GL_CULL_FACE )
glCullFace( GL_BACK )
glFrontFace( GL_CW )

请注意，在 OpenGL 中以“现代”方式绘制几何图形的最后一步是使用 Shader program和 将 glEnableClientState 分别替换为 glEnableVertexAttribArray 和 glVertexPointer glColorPointer 为 glVertexAttribPointer (当然是通过使用适当的参数)。

另见 PyGame and OpenGL 4 .

https://stackoverflow.com/questions/54114325/